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Physical Fitness

Physical fitness can be defined as: a set of attributes that relate to one's ability to perform physical activity (McArdle et al., 1996).  An individuals physical fitness is made up of five measurable components: 1) Cardiovascular Fitness; 2) Muscular Strength; 3) Muscular Endurance; 4) Flexibility; and, 5) Motor Skills.  Improvements in each of these components will enable an individual to improve their daily tasks, quality of life and a wide range of sporting activities.

1. Cardiovascular Fitness refers to the ability of the heart, lungs and circulation (arteries, veins, capillaries, blood) to take in, transport and use oxygen.  All of these must be working efficiently for the working muscles to receive an adequate supply of oxygen during a physical activity.  An individual with a good level of cardiovascular fitness will be able to inhale large amounts of oxygen into the lungs, uptake large quantities of oxygen into the blood stream from the lungs, and be able to uptake and utilise large amounts of oxygen in their working muscles.  The level of cardiovascular fitness declines gradually with age.  The rate of decline can, however, be reduced by performing regular cardiovascular exercise. Individuals can improve their level of cardiovascular fitness by regularly taking part in activities such as walking, jogging, cycling, swimming etc.  An individuals level of cardiovascular fitness is assessed by measuring an individuals maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max).  This represents the maximum amount of oxygen that can be absorbed and utilised by an individual during physical activity and is measured in ml of oxygen per kg of bodyweight per minute.

2. Muscular Strength refers to the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to exert a maximum force against a high resistance.  An individuals strength will reach a peak between the ages of 20-30 years of age.  Thereafter, an individuals strength will slowly decline reaching a more rapid decline after middle age.  It therefore becomes increasingly important to work on improving muscular strength as we age.  Muscular strength training involves performing a number of repetitions using some form of resistance.  Typically this would involve a low number of repetitions (8-15) and fairly high resistance.  To train for muscular strength individuals can use: bodyweight, resistance bands, free weights such as dumbbells, and resistance machines.

3. Muscular Endurance refers to the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to overcome a low to moderate resistance repeatedly - using a higher number of repetitions than with muscular strength training.  Muscular endurance training involves the use of a high number of repetitions (20-250) with a lower resistance.  To train for muscular endurance individuals can use: bodyweight, resistance bands, free weights such as dumbbells, and resistance machines.

4. Flexibility  refers to the range of movement (ROM) that can be accomplished by the muscles and joints.  The greater the level of flexibility the greater the ROM will be.  An individuals level of flexibility is dependant on the structure of the joint, the shape of the bones, the tightness of the muscles, tendons and ligaments.  The level of flexibility varies from joint to joint (e.g. an individual may be flexible in the knee joint but not the shoulder joint).  Generally as we get older are level of flexibility decreases. We can improve are level of flexibility by performing stretching exercises.  This involves gently stretching the joint until you can fill a stretch in the muscle, and holding the stretch for 10-20secs, then relaxing the muscle.

5. Motor Skills refers to movement patterns controlled by the nerve to muscle relationship, referred to as neuromuscular responses.  Examples include: balance, co-ordination, re-action time, speed, power, and agility.  These skills are specific to the activity and train the nerve muscle connection.  Training for these skills involves repeated exercises called drills which work on improving the nerve muscle connection.

Therefore, training to improve physical fitness involves the use of specific training aimed at improving all of five components that make up physical fitness.  This best achieved through the use of a specific programme that is well structured to meet the individuals needs and goals.  A program should be progressive in order to continue to stimulate further improvements in the individual.

Exercise for Health

It is widely recognised that an inactive lifestyle is harmful to health and well-being.  The greater the level of inactivity the greater the effect on the individual.  What is of particular concern is that activity levels have decreased greatly across all age groups.  The low activity levels mean that inactive individuals are at a much greater risk of having serious health problems in later life. 

Research by Blair, S. N. (1993), looking at the findings of 30 years of research found strong evidence of reduced chronic disease rates following physical activity.  The research demonstrated significant decreases in: total mortality, coronary artery disease, Hypertension, Obesity, Stroke, many types of cancers, non-insulin dependant diabetes, Osteoporosis, and the individuals total level of functional capability.

Any level of exercise will lead to improvements in physical fitness.  However, the greater the amount of time spent training the greater the physical benefits will be.  This was demonstrated by Paffenbarger, R.S., Jr. et al. (1986) who found that individual walking around 30-35miles per week, reduced their death rate percentage by nearly 50%, whereas, individuals who walked less than 5miles per week reduced their death rate by just under 10%. 

Research has also demonstrated that the intensity at which exercise is performed is also important.  When exercise is performed at a more vigorous level there appears to be a greater effect in terms of life expectancy.  Research by Lee, I.M. and Paffenbarger, R.S. (1995), demonstrated that the more active men were the greater their life expectancy was and the lower their death rates were.  The reason why a greater exercise intensity leads to greater gains in physical fitness is: "The greater the demands placed on an organ within its physiologic limits, the more intensively it adapts and the more efficient it becomes" (Hollmann et al., 1981). Since a greater exercise intensity, would place greater physiological demands on the heart, lungs, circulatory system, and working muscles, the adaptation by these organs will be greater than following training at a lower intensity.

One of the biggest benefits of exercise can be seen in the reduced risk of Coronary heart disease (CHD) following an appropriate training plan.  CHD refers to conditions affecting the heart muscle and the arteries supplying the heart with vital oxygen.  Changes in these arteries over many years can lead to angina, heart attacks and death.  There are approximately 470 deaths per day from CHD, and the cost to the NHS runs into billions of pounds per year.  Research has demonstrated that even a modest amount of exercise may significantly reduce the risk of of dying from CHD (Jette, M. et al., 1988; Pollock, M.L. et al., 1971; Woolf-May, K. et al., 1997).  It is clearly of benefit to the individual aswel as the NHS that individuals partake in regular exercise programmes.  The benefits of exercise in the treatment and prevention of chronic illness will be discussed more thoroughly in the health section.  Below is a summary of the health benefits of cardiovascular training (CV), muscular strength and endurance training, and flexibility training:

Cardiovascular training benefits to health:

1. Stronger Heart muscle and increased pumping capacity (stroke volume) of the heart

2. Increased muscular endurance in the exercised muscles

3. Reduced risk of CHD

4. Reduced risk of Stroke

5. Can normalise or reduce blood pressure

6. Reduced risk of blood clots (thrombosis)

7. Reductions in bodyfat

8. Increased levels of High Density Lipoproteins (Good fats)

9. Decreased levels of Low Density Lipoproteins (Bad fats)

10. Helps to build and maintain healthy bones joints and muscles

11. Reduce stress levels and promote feelings of wellbeing

Muscular Strength and Endurance training benefits to health:

1. Reduced risk of Osteoporosis

2. Helps to maintain and increase muscle mass

3. Increased endurance of muscles

4. Increased strength

5. Improved posture and therefore helps to reduce back problems

6. Maintains healthy joints

Flexibility training:

1. Maintenance and improvements in the range of motion

2. Improved posture

3. Reduction in general aches and pains

4. Reduced risk of back problems

Any exercise programme prescribed with the aim of improving physical fitness will concentrate on CV training, resistance training, and flexibility training.  These will be used in varying amounts depending on the individuals needs.

Current recommendations for CV, resistance and flexibility training

CV training recommendations

Activity levels:

1. Light Activity -Requires only a low level of exertion and does not cause a significant rise in heart rate or breathing.  Examples: walking at a slow pace, gentle gardening, and housework etc.

2. Moderate Activity - Requires sustained muscular movements and there will be a noticeable rise in the heart rate and breathing rate.  Examples: brisk walking, gardening, gentle swimming, gentle cycling.

3. Vigorous Activity - requires sustained rhythmic large muscular movements that elicit a heart rate that is greater than 60% of the individuals maximum heart rate.  Examples:  walking briskly up a gradient, jogging, cycling vigorously, swimming, rowing, football.

Current CV training recommendations for improved physical fitness:

1. The Health Education (HEA) guidelines recommends that individuals should perform at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity exercise on 5 days a week.

2. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) guidelines recommend that individuals should perform at least 20 minutes of vigorous exercise on 3 or more days a week.

Both of these recommendations will lead to improvements in physical fitness. However, since it is clear that a higher training intensity has a more significant effect on physical fitness than a lower exercise level, it would seem wise to follow the ACSM guidelines. Research supports the the ACSM guidelines of training at an intensity of approximately 70% maxHR (Hollman et al., 1981; Wenger and Bell 1986; Woolf-May et al., 1997) and a training frequency of at least 3 days a week (Roskamm, H. 1967; Bouchard et al., 1980; Hollman et al., 1981; Wenger and Bell 1986; Woolf-may et al., 1997). However, research seems to demonstrate that individual training sessions should be of a longer duration than 20mins, with graeter benefits occuring when training sessions last >35-40minutes (Hollman et al., 1981; Wenger and Bell, 1986; McArdle et al., 1996).

Based on the research sportingperformance.co.uk makes the following recommendations with CV training for improving physical fitness:

1. Training intensity should be performed in the region of 70-90% of max HR unless there is a medical reason not to do this (i.e. High blood pressure, heart disease etc.)

2. Training frequency should be a minimum of 3 times per week but ideally 5 times per week

3. Training volume should be approximately 40minutes per session.

Selecting the appropriate HR for optimizing training intensity:

Table 1.0 The predicted maximum heart rate for ages 20-80 years, with appropriate training intensities for each age group based on the predicted maximum heart rate.

Many CV machines now have built in HR monitors which will help you to monitor training intensity.  These HR monitors give a relatively accurate reading but it is far better to purchase a chest strap HR monitor.  With these a small chest strap is placed just below the chest.  The chest strap transmits the HR reading to a wrist watch which displays the reading.  A number of research studies have found Polar HR monitors, in particular, to be particularly effective, providing a reliable measure of HR (Leger and Thivierge, 1988; Trieber et al., 1989; Godsen et al., 1991).  These HR monitors are relatively cheap and start from as little as £40.

Sportingperformance.co.uk suggested CV training:

3 day training week:

4 day training week:

5 day training week:

You should always seek medical advice from a qualified general practitioner or physician if any of the following applies to you: A family history of heart disease or other serious illness; you are currently suffering with or have a  history of - heart disease, high blood pressure, stroke, dizzyness, diabetes, epilepsy or any other serious condition that may put you at risk when training; if you are taking medication and are unsure about whether it is safe for you to excercise; if you are pregnant; or if you are over the age of 40 and have not undertaken any exercise for a period of time.

References

Blair, S. N. (1993) Physical activity, physical fitness, and health. Research Quarterly In Exercise And Sport. 365, 64.

Bouchard, C., Boulay, M., Thibault, M. C., Carrier, R. and Dulac, S. (1980) Training of submaximal working capacity: frequency, intensity, duration, and their interactions. Journal of Sports Medicine. 20, 29-40.

Godsen, R., Carroll, T. and Stone, S. (1991) How well does Polar Vantage XL Heart Rate Monitor estimate actual heart rate? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 23, (suppl.) S14.

Hollmann, W., Rost, R., Liesen, H., Dufaux, B., Heck, H. and Mader, A. (1981) Assessment of Different Forms of Physical Activity with Respect to Preventive and Rehabilitative Cardiology. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 2, 67-80.

Jette, M., Sidney, K. and Cambell, J. (1988) Effects of a twelve-week walking programme on maximal and submaximal work output indices in sedentary middle-aged men and women. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 28, 59-66.

Lee, I. M. and Paffenbarger, R. S. (1995) Exercise intensity and longevity in men: the Harvard Alumni Study. JAMA. 273, 1179.

Leger, R. M. and Thivierge, M. (1988) Heart rate monitors: Validity, stability, and functionality. Physician and Sportsmedicine. 16, 143-151.

McArdle, W. D., Katch, F. I., and Katch, V. L. (1996) Exercise Physiology: Energy, nutrition, and human performance, 4th Edition. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, USA.

Paffenbarger, R. S., Jr., et al. (1986) Physical activity, all-cause mortality, and longevity of college alumini. New England Medical Journal. 328, 538.

Pollock, M. L., Miller, H. S., Janeway, R., Linnerud, A. C., Robertson, B. and Valentino, R. (1971) Effects of walking on body composition and cardiovascular function of middle aged men. Journal of Applied Physiology. 30, 126-130.

Roskamm, H. (1967) Optimum patterns of exercise for healthy adult. Canadian Medical Association. 96, 895-900.

Treiber, F. a., Musante, L., Hartdagan, S., Davis, H., Levy, M. and Strong, W. B. (1989) Validation of a heart rate monitor with children in laboratory and field settings. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 21, (3), 338-342.

Wenger, H. A. and Bell, G. J. (1986) The Interactions of Intensity, Frequency and Duration of Exercise Training in Altering Cardiorespiratory Fitness. Sports Medicine. 1, 346-356.

Woolf-May, K., Bird, S. and Owen, Andrew. (1997) Effects of an 18 week walking programme on cardiac function inpreviously sedentary or relatively inactive adults. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 31, 1, 48-53.

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